Identifying client need is an important issue in all career guidance provision. It is important that interventions should start where the client is, should be responsive to clients' expressed needs, but where appropriate should provide opportunities for exploration of underlying needs. In addition, where guidance services are publicly funded and cost-limited, there may be policy pressures to target these resources to clients who are regarded as needing them most.Within the UK, the targeting of guidance resources is currently been given significant policy prominence. The Careers Service, for example, is being asked to focus its activity in schools on pupils most in need of support, linked to the Government's commitment to social inclusion and to re-engaging disaffected young people. Schools are accordingly being asked to "identify those most inneed of help" and to "agree the right support for pupils" - i.e. the kinds of helpthey individually require (DfEE, 1999a).
In the field of adult guidance, current Government policy is based on a distinction between three groups of adults: those whose "straight forward need is for basicand unmediated - but comprehensive - information about learning opportunities"; those who "also find it useful to talk through with an adviser what is available locally, how it relates to employment opportunities and where they can go forfurther help"; and those who "have a need for a more tailored service, which may include an in-depth guidance interview". It is proposed that the needs of the first two groups should be met free of charge, but that services for the third might include "those for which a charge is levied" (DfEE, 1999b, pp. 4-5). An importantpart of this strategy is the Learning Direct helpline and website, which are to include diagnostic packages designed to "sign post" users to local information, advice and guidance services when further help is required (see Watts, 1999). In considering ways of identifying clients' guidance needs as a basis for sign posting them to appropriate guidance resources, it is important to draw on experience not only in the UK but also overseas. In the USA, an influential model has been developed at Florida State University. Originally developed within the university's own career centre - a centre open to the local community as well as to the university's own students (Reardon, 1996; Reardon & Minor, 1975) - it has subsequently been applied else where, including the one-stop centres which have been set up in most states with the support of the US Department of Labor(Sampson & Reardon, 1998). The next sections of the paper present the main elements of the model, including its theoretical basis and its operational implications. This is followed by a brief preliminary report on the application of the model within a careers service in the UK, and finally by discussion of its possible wider implications for the UK. The paper draws on a symposium held at the Centre for Guidance Studies, University of Derby, in March 1999, and on a subsequent Internet discussion group on the Centre's website.The model Theoretical base The theoretical base of the model applies cognitive information processing (CIP) theory to the process of career problem-solving and decision-making (Peterson,Sampson & Reardon, 1991; Peterson, Sampson, Reardon & Lenz, 1996;Sampson, Lenz, Reardon & Peterson, in press). Two core constructs in the CIP approach include the pyramid of information-processing domains (the content of career problem-solving and decision-making, involving self-knowledge, occupational knowledge, decision-making skills, and metacognitions) and the CASVE cycle (the process of career problem-solving and decision-making,involving the phases of communication, analysis, synthesis, valuing, andexecution). The model thus embraces and significantly extends the DOTS model(Law & Watts, 1977) which has been influential in the UK.With these two constructs as a foundation, seven key elements of the CIP modelcan be identified that are essential to its successful application in practice:1. Screening individuals for career decision-making readiness beforedelivering services.2. Matching levels of staff assistance to identified individual needs.3. Using career theory to help individuals understand and manage careerdecision-making.4. Using the career resource room and Internet website with all levels ofservice delivery.5. Using career resources that are appropriate for diverse individual learners.6. Using staff teamwork in delivering services to individuals.7. Providing common staff training for delivering resources and services.These elements are based on the assumptions that multiple staff members areinvolved in service delivery, that a variety of career resources and services areavailable, and that career resources and services are delivered both in a careercentre and on an Internet website. Services with one or two staff members,services with limited career resources, and services without Internet websites,would need to adapt the application of the model to their setting. Depending onthe organisational affiliation of the service, the qualifications of staff, and thenature of the individuals served, further adaptation of the model may be requiredin order to implement it effectively.Screening individualsIndividuals vary in their readiness for making career decisions (Phillips &Blustein, 1994). Numerous theoretical constructs have evolved to explain whysome individuals have difficulty in career decision-making, such as vocationalmaturity (Super, 1974), career maturity (Crites, 1996), career adaptability (Super,1983; Savickas, 1994), vocational identity (Holland, 1997), decision-making selfefficacy(Lent & Hackett, 1987), career beliefs (Krumboltz, 1983), anddysfunctional career thinking (Sampson et al., 1998). If individuals are notscreened prior to receiving career services, those individuals with low readinessfor decision-making may be underserved by staff who are unaware of theirsubstantial need for assistance, while high- readiness individuals may beoverserved by staff who deliver expensive individualised interventions when lessexpensive approaches are likely be equally effective.In the CIP model, screening individuals at the outset of service delivery increasesthe likelihood that the services delivered will be congruent with individual needs.As a result of better allocation of scarce staff resources, staff will have time toserve more individuals with briefer interventions, or will have more time to deliverintensive individualised interventions in order to assist individuals with extensiveneeds. The screening process may be as simple as asking individuals toarticulate their reasons for seeking assistance and judging readiness based ontheir response. If this brief screening question indicates that a concrete requestfor information exists and that no potential problems are evident, then no furtherscreening is needed at this point and a referral is made to self-help resources. Ifthe brief screening question indicates that no concrete request for informationexists and that there are potential problems (such as uncertainty when a decisionneeds to be made, confusion, or disabling emotions), then more comprehensivescreening is likely to be needed.A readiness assessment measure may be used to assist staff in making ajudgement about individuals' readiness for career decision-making (Sampson,Peterson, Reardon & Lenz, 1999). The use of a comprehensive screeningmeasure provides individuals and practitioners with an easy understood,common frame of reference for discussing readiness. The measures listed inFigure 1 could be adapted for the UK by revising spellings and language, andthen collecting UK norms and UK reliability and validity data. Careers serviceswishing to adapt these measures should contact individual publishers forappropriate permissions and instructions.It is important to emphasise that judgements about individuals' readiness forcareer decision-making should be based on interaction and negotiation with theindividual, not just relying on a simple score on an assessment instrument. Thegoal of readiness assessment is to help both individuals and practitioners tomake informed, collaborative decisions about the level of staff assistance that ismost likely to meet their needs.Figure 1: Examples of instruments for readiness screeningInstrumentsNo.ofitemsAttributes measuredCareer Decision Scale (Osipow,Carney, Winer, Yanico &Koschir, 1976)19 Career Certainty and IndecisionMy Vocational Situation(Holland, Daiger & Power, 1980)26Vocational Identity, Need forInformation, Barriers in CareerDecision-MakingCareer Decision Profile (Jones,1998)16Decidedness, Comfort, Self-Clarity, Knowledge aboutOccupations and Training,Decisiveness, Career ChoiceImportanceCareer Factors Inventory(Chartrand, Robins, Morrill &Boggs, 1990)21Career Choice Anxiety,Generalised Indecisiveness,Need for Career Information,Need for Self-KnowledgeCareers Beliefs Inventory(Krumboltz, 1991)96Employment Status, CareerPlans, Acceptance ofUncertainty, Openness,Achievement, CollegeEducation, Intrinsic Satisfaction,Peer Equality, Structured WorkEnvironment, Control,Responsibility, Approval ofOthers, Self-OtherComparisons,Occupation/College Variation,Career Path Flexibility, Post-Training Transition, JobExperimentation, Relocation,Improving Self, Persisting WhileUncertain, Taking Risks,Learning Job Skills,Negotiating/Searching,Overcoming Obstacles, WorkingHardCareer Attitudes and StrategiesInventory (Holland &Gottfredson, 1993)130Job Satisfaction, WorkInvolvement, Skill Development,Dominant Style, Career Worries,Interpersonal Abuse, FamilyCommitment, Risk-Taking Style,Geographical BarriersCareer Maturity Inventory -Revised (Crites & Savickas,1995)50Career Maturity Attitude, CareerMaturity CompetenceCareer Thoughts Inventory(Sampson, Peterson, Lenz,Reardon & Saunders, 1996a;1998)48Total Dysfunctional CareerThoughts, Decision-MakingConfusion, CommitmentAnxiety, External Conflict (withsignificant others)Note: Each of these instruments can be hand-scored. Hand-scoringcapability facilitates rapid responsiveness, which is an importantcharacteristic in efficiently serving large numbers of clients in a timelymanner. All except the Career Thoughts Inventory are reviewed from aUK perspective in Killeen et al. (1994).Matching levels of assistance to levels of needThe goal of the model is to avoid either overserving or underserving individuals.Accordingly, the screening process outlined above is used to select anappropriate level of staff assistance in relation to individuals' need for assistance.Three levels of service delivery are distinguished: self-help services, brief staffassistedservices, and individual case-managed services.Individuals who are initially judged by staff to have a high level of readiness fordecision- making are referred to self-help career services. Career resourcerooms and Internet websites are designed to assist individuals in selecting,locating, sequencing and using needed resources with little or no assistance fromstaff.Individuals who are initially judged by staff to have a moderate level of readinessfor decision-making are referred to brief staff-assisted services. This includesself-directed career decision-making, involving practitioner-guided use of careerresources and services in a career resource room by individuals with adequatedecision-making readiness to effectively learn in this environment. Staffteamwork, and the continuity offered by the use of individual learning plans, allowindividuals to work with one or more staff members of their choosing and todecide how quickly they will proceed. Other brief staff-assisted services includeshorter-term group counselling (less than 6 sessions), career courses with largegroupinteraction, and workshops. In each of these group interventions, theopportunity for interaction among participants is minimal to moderate.Individuals who are initially judged by staff to have a low level of readiness fordecision- making are ideally referred to individual case-managed services. Thisincludes individual counselling, longer-term group counselling (more than 6sessions), and career courses with small-group interaction. By having a greateramount of time available for service delivery, staff can proceed at a pace slowenough for low-readiness individuals to process information more effectively andto deal with a diverse range of issues that make decision-making difficult. Groupinterventions in this category allow maximum opportunity for interaction amongparticipants.No firm data exist on the proportions of clients who fall into the three categories.Estimates of those requiring case-managed services tend how-ever to fallbetween 10% and 50%, depending on the population, with the remainder beingdivided between those requiring self-help and brief staff-assisted services.The resulting net effect is to limit expensive services (in terms of staff resources)to individuals with more extensive needs. The effectiveness of this approach isdependent on staff briefly checking with individuals receiving self-help to ensurethat their needs are being met, and increasing the level of staff assistance whenit becomes apparent that additional assistance is needed (Sampson et al., 1999).The model also assumes that practitioners may have diverse training andqualifications. The use of a team approach (with paraprofessionals,professionals-in-training, and professionals working collaboratively) has beenshown to contribute to the cost-effectiveness of career service delivery (Reardon,1996). Practitioners delivering services to low-readiness individuals need specifictraining in individual case-managed interventions that may include the integrationof career and mental health issues.Using career theoryCareer theory serves two purposes in the CIP approach. First, it helps thepractitioner to decide how much and what type of assistance individuals will needin order to solve career problems and make career decisions. Second, careertheory helps individuals understand the content of career decision-making (whatis involved in career choice) and the process of career decision-making (thesteps to good decision-making). This understanding can help individuals tocreate a cognitive framework or schema for career choice that reduces ambiguityin the career choice process, enables them to better manage the overwhelmingamount of career choice information that is available, and provides clear criteriafor self-monitoring of progress in decision-making.In order for individuals to use theory to better understand and manage careerdecision-making, theoretical constructs need to be translated into terminologythat individuals can readily comprehend. Several strategies have been used inthe CIP approach to translate theoretical constructs (Figure 2) for use byindividuals using resources and receiving services. The language of the originalconstructs developed by Peterson et al. (1991) were translated by Sampson,Peterson, Lenz & Reardon (1992) to avoid professional jargon and improveclarity. These revised constructs are presented to individuals on handouts as partof self-help services, brief staff-assisted services and individual case-managedservices to help individuals understand and manage career decision-making. Thetranslated concepts, supported by several metaphors, are also used in aninstructional workbook designed to restructure negative cognition and enhancecompetence in career decision-making (Sampson et al., 1996b).Using the career resource room and Internet websiteIn the CIP approach, career resource rooms and Internet websites play a keyrole in the delivery of resources and services. As mentioned previously, careerresource rooms and websites provide individuals with self-help access toresources that meet identified learning needs. The career resource room is anopen space within the career centre, with a reception area, bookshelves and filesfor maintaining resources, tables and computer work stations for the use ofresources, and adjacent group rooms and staff offices. The Internet website isthe distance guidance component of the career service (Sampson, 1999).The effectiveness of self-help services delivered in career resource rooms isdependent on having:1. an easy-to-understand classification schema for organising resources;2. an index to identify available resources;3. resource guides to help individuals select resources that meet their needs;4. clear signposting to physically locate resources;5. a comfortable and attractive place to use the resources and receive otherservices (Peterson et al., 1991).The effectiveness of self-help services delivered via Internet websites isdependent on having:1. the site designed to help users select appropriate resources by linkingindividuals' needs to resources and external links;2. suggestions provided on how to sequence and use the resources and linksthat are available;3. assessment, information, and instruction that has been validated for selfhelpuse;4. a description of circumstances where help from a practitioner is typicallyneeded to meet needs (Sampson, 1999).The career resource room can also be effectively used in brief staff-assistedservices by having staff assist individuals to select, locate, sequence and useresources based on the creation and regular review of individual learning plans.An ILP helps clients and practitioners to collabor-atively plan the use ofresources and services necessary to solve a career problem. The written planincludes client goals and prioritised learning activities with related outcomes.Similarly, the career resource room can be effectively used in individual casemanagedservices by bringing clients into the resource room during a session touse resources under the supervision of the practitioner. In this way, learning canbe enhanced by taking advantage of the "teachable moment" to immediatelyclarify and apply what has been learned, or to identify dysfunctional thoughts thatinhibit learning and decision-making, without having to wait for the nextscheduled appointment with a practitioner.The Internet website can be used in the career resource room or staff offices aspart of brief staff-assisted or individual case-managed services to model andreinforce information-seeking behaviour. Low-readiness clients who havedifficulty in processing information may still be effective Internet website users ifappropriate assistance is provided by a practitioner in the use of the website.Using appropriate career resourcesThe CIP approach recognises that individuals vary in terms of their verbalaptitude, motivation, and learning style (Peterson et al., 1991). Ideally, the careerresources available in the career resource room and on the Internet websiteshould be appropriate for the inherent diversity in individuals' verbal aptitude,motivation, and learning style. In terms of verbal aptitude, it is particularlyimportant for resources to be available with a range of readability. Many careerresources are written at high school or college reading level, which may lead tofailed interventions for adolescents and adults with limited reading ability.Advertising that a wide range of individuals can be served in a career service,when in fact only highly verbal individuals can successfully use the resourcesavailable, may result in failure experiences for individuals with limited readingskills and make them reluctant to seek further career assistance. In terms ofmotivation and learning style, traditional text-based resources (which may includesimple text-based Internet websites) need to be supplemented with video andinteractive computer-based resources that may be more reinforcing for somelearners (Peterson et al., 1991). Care also needs to be taken to ensure thatindividuals' physical disabilities do not prevent them from accessing resources incareer resource rooms. Similarly, Internet websites should be accessible throughtext readers for individuals with visual disabilities.Using staff teamworkAn essential brief staff-assisted service in the CIP approach is self-directedcareer decision- making. As stated previously, this intervention involvespractitioner-guided use of career resources and services in a career resourceroom by individuals with adequate decision-making readiness to learn effectivelyin this environment. The assumption is that continuity in service delivery residesin the collaboratively developed written individual learning plan, as opposed tothe behaviour of any single staff member. This results in two benefits to theindividual. First, he or she is not restricted to the available appointment times ofany one practitioner. Second, individuals are also able to decide how quicklythey will use available resources and services. They can choose to spendconsiderable time working on their career problem with several staff members, orthey can choose to work with one staff member during their assigned times in thecareer resource room if they value the relationship with a particular practitioner(Sampson & Reardon, 1998). For this approach to be effective, however, staffteamwork is essential. Staff members must be able to quickly establish helpingrelationships, to clarify client progress in completing the individual learning plan,and subsequently to revise the plan if new individual needs emerge.Providing common staff trainingAnother factor in the success of self-directed career decision-makinginterventions is common staff training (Sampson & Reardon, 1998). Commontraining experiences among staff are needed to reduce the likelihood ofinconsistent or disjointed service delivery when multiple staff serve oneindividual. Individuals may become confused and discouraged if some staff areunable to help them effectively use the resources and services included on theirindividual learning plan.There are content and process dimensions to common staff training. In terms ofthe content dimension, all staff need to be familiar with the theoretical basis ofthe service delivery in order to assist clients in understanding and managing thecareer decision-making process. All staff also need to be competent in the use ofcore assessment, information, and instructional resources. In terms of theprocess dimension, all staff need to be competent in the readiness assessmentand intervention planning elements of the CIP approach. This includescompetence in the use of one or two common readiness assessmentinstruments, as well as the use of readiness assessment data in selecting anappropriate type and amount of staff intervention and in collaboratively designingan individual learning plan to adequately meet client needs.In terms of staff training, career resources can be categorised as core orspecialised resources. Core career resources and services are those judged tobe relevant to common career problems, with all staff expected to be competentin their use or delivery. Specialised career resources and services are thosejudged to be relevant to less common career problems, with specific staff havingexpertise in assisting individuals or other staff in their use or delivery.Applications in the UKCoventrySome preliminary work is currently being undertaken at Quality Careers Services(QCS) in Coventry to explore ways key elements of the model outlined abovecould be implemented in a UK careers-service setting. QCS is an unusualservice in that it delivers its guidance to young people directly from bases inschools, supported from a central headquarters which also houses a largeshopfront service dealing with young unemployed and adult clients. The shophas a team of three full-time and two part-time front-line information assistants,supported by a team of employment assistants and careers advisers. Due tosignificant recent restructuring, most of the shop staff are new in post: this hasprovided a particularly opportune moment to trial the model.The essence of the model, in the view of QCS, is going more firmly down theroad of genuine customer-driven services. This means maximising the servicearound the ways customers think, improving needs diagnosis, and maximisingthe use of self-help and brief staff-assisted services, utilising individual careersadviser interviews only for the more complex needs. Whilst QCS is well down thisroad already, there are potential areas for improvement.The two aspects of the work being reviewed are services at the QCS centraloffices and website development, though it is clear that the approach hasrelevance to most of the company's operations. Work groups have been set up tolook at both areas, in each case focusing separately on the needs of youngpeople and of adults.A number of key tasks have been identified, with key principles for each one.Thus on resource room layout, the principles are:· improvements of signposting in terms which directly reflect customersneeds rather than library jargon and which genuinely encourage self-help;· using customers to help in designing the room;· producing a map of the room to assist customers in using it;· housing the most popular resources in mobile stands/files.On clarification of staff roles/responsibilities, the principles are:· information assistants should be trained and encouraged to take thediagnosis of need a stage further than the basics where necessary;· all staff should develop an intimate working knowledge of the resources inorder to be able to help clients effectively;· clients initially presenting a concrete query should be referred to theappropriate resource, with back-up staff "floor walking" to check whetherthe client is getting what they want and to identify any other needsemerging;· all staff, including careers advisers and managers, should have someinput into the resource room on a regular basis;· strong teamworking on all sides is essential for the successful operation ofthe front-line service, and a strong programme of mutual training,coaching and mentoring is required from everyone for it to succeed;· the information team need not be based in the resource room, but shouldspend some time there in order to better understand customer need andto evaluate the benefits of different resources.On the development of resource guides, the principles are:· a series of such guides should be written covering the principal customerneeds expressed, e.g. "Getting to know yourself better" and "Dealing withredundancy";· each should list the resources available in a language which guides thecustomer around the room;· each should have stated learning outcomes;· titles should be simple, possibly phrased as a question;· a common format should be agreed;· CLCI references should be included;· a "who to contact" or "what to do next" section should be added at theend;· there should be separate guides for young people and for adults;· the guides should be prominently displayed.On developing use of screening instruments, the principles are:· a variety should be trialed to establish preferred options;· they should probably be administered initially by careers advisers, withother staff trained later;· instruments should be used when it is unclear where a client is "comingfrom" in terms of their vocational decision-making and/or barriers to jobseeking- this information can be used to determine the level of servicethey receive and as background information for adviser interviews.On the development of individual learning plans, the principles are:· plans should be designed and training provided in their use, particularly inthe brief intervention situation, to assist customers to use the resourcesconstructively;· they can be used as a dynamic tool, allowing other members of staff topick them up and to add to them;· they can be used as evidence of work done with the client;· they should be used by all members of staff;· different versions could be used for front-line and adviser interviews or toreflect reporting requirements for project funding.On the development of quantity and quality of information resources, theprinciples are:· planning of resources should concentrate on multiple copies of the bestquality resources rather than going for a wide range, thus encouragingsimplicity for customers and staff familiarity (staff judgement should beexercised ruthlessly on this if necessary: new resources should only beadded if something else is lost);· the volume of relevant resources should be improved to enhance self-helpcapacity;· the long-term aim should be to produce a computerised index of resourcesavailable by occupation.On the planning and operation of a training/ supervision programme, theprinciples are:· training should be "on-the-job" as well as "off-the-job", involving advisersin a proactive coaching role;· training for careers advisers and information assistants should as far aspossible be common.On website development, the principles are:· a webmaster should be appointed internally, with (as a minimum) basiccomputer skills (e.g. able to use WORD), and given training in MicrosoftFrontpage;· technical consultancy should be outsourced;· the style of the website should be customer-need-driven, e.g. "searchingfor a job" or "I don't know what I want to do", rather than just listingresources at random;· provision for young people and for adults should be separated;· work-groups for website development should include some people fromthe service-delivery work-groups, so that the content can mirror that of theresource guides and follow the same customer-need-driven path.Wider applicationsThe CIP model, and the work being done to apply key elements of the model inCoventry, are relevant to many aspects of career guidance practice in the UK.Many higher education careers services, for example, have moved away from aservice centred on advisory interviews to an open-access model, with informationrooms supported by brief informal interviews, and long interviews available as aresidual resource for those who need it (Watts, 1997). This reflects a wider trend,visible across Europe, in which the concept of an expert guidance specialistworking with individual clients in a contextual vacuum is replaced - or at leastsupplemented - by a more diffuse approach, in which a more varied range ofinterventions is used, with a greater emphasis on the individual as an activeagent rather than a passive recipient within the guidance process (Watts,Guichard, Plant & Rodrigruez, 1993).Other current work in the UK can be can be viewed as being along broadlysimilar lines to that outlined in the model. For example, Marcus Offer is workingwith VT Southern Careers in Hampshire on a Web-based system, which usesthree levels of service (with professional support, with some non-specialistsupport, and self-help) set against five learning outcomes based on DOTS (selfawareness, opportunity awareness, matching, decision making, and transitionplanning), with an inventory of Frequently-Asked Questions (FAQ) being offeredto help individuals identify, on an unmediated self-help basis, which resourcesthey might use (Offer, 1999).In relation to adult guidance, the three levels of service delivery identified in themodel bear some similarities to the distinctions between "information", "advice"and "guidance" which - as noted in the introduction - underpin current policydebates in the UK. "Information" was defined at a recent NICEC policyconsultation carried out for the Department for Education and Employment(Corney & Watts, 1998) as "data on learning and work opportunities conveyedthrough printed matter, audio-visual materials or computer software, or throughinformation officers in careers services or helpline services such as LearningDirect": this seems close to "self-help services". "Advice" is defined as "providingan immediate response to the needs of clients who present an enquiry or reveala need that requires more than a straightforward information response", and asbeing "usually limited to helping with the interpretation of information and withmeeting needs already clearly understood by the client", which "may or may notinclude signposting to a guidance interview (or other intervention) where a morein-depth response can be provided": this is an attenuated form of "brief staffassistedservices". Finally, "guidance" (or "professional guidance") is defined as"an in-depth interview (or other intervention, e.g. group guidance) conducted by atrained adviser who helps clients explore a range of options, to relate informationto their own needs and circumstances, and to make decisions about their career- i.e. their progression in learning and/or work": this seems close to "individualcase-managed services".There may however be an important difference in the application of the model inthis context. The model was developed in two situations in the USA - a careerguidance service run by a university both for its own students and for the localcommunity, and the "one-stop centres" being developed in many states with USDepartment of Labor support - where the task was to find the best way ofallocating and rationing a limited "free" (i.e. publicly-funded) resource. This maybe directly relevant to the "information" and "advice" parts of the Government'sstrategy, which are likewise to be free to the user. With "guidance", however, theintention is that services should include "those for which a charge is levied". Thissuggests the possibility of developing a market which will expand provision inresponse to demand. If Individual Learning Accounts succeed in significantlyexpanding the resources for lifelong learning on the basis of co-investmentbetween individuals, employers and the state, they could expand the resourcesfor guidance too (Corney & Watts, 1998). In this situation, instead of thinking ofhow we limit the people receiving "individual case-managed services" to thosewho really "need" it, should we not be encouraging individuals to consider thebenefits they might acquire from such services - even if their "capability" is high?
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